Physiographic Divisions of India

India can be divided into following physical divisions viz.


The Northern Mountains

The North Indian Plain

The Peninsular Plateau

Great Indian Desert

The coastal Regions

Islands



The Northern Mountains / Himalayan Mountains


Young and structurally fold mountains stretch over thenorthern borders of India
Run in a west-east direction fromthe Indus to the Brahmaputra formed by the tectonic collision of the Indian plateau with the Eurasian plateau
Loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers of the world
form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km in length with varying width from 400 Km in Kashmir to 160 Km Arunachal Pradesh
The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern part than in the western


♦The Trans Himalayas

Himalayan Ranges immediately to the north of the The Great Himalayan Range are called the Trans Himalayas.
Most of the part of this Himalayan range lies in the Tibet and hence also called Tibetan Himalaya
The Zaskar, K2 (Godwin austin), the Ladakh, the Kailash and the Karakoram are the main ranges of the trans Himalayan system


♦Greater or Inner Himalayas / Himadri

Most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres
Contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks with core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite
Perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range
Prominent Ranges include Mt. Everest, Kamet, Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat, Annapurna



♦The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal

Altitude varies between 3,700 to 4,500 metres and the average width is of 50 Km
While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range, the Dhaula Dhar & the Mahabharat ranges are also prominent ones
Consists of the famous valley of Kashmir and the Kangra & Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh (Majority of hill stations lies in this range)


♦The Shiwaliks

The altitude varies between 900 to 1100 km and the width varies between 10 to 50 km
The longitudinal valleys lying between the Himachal and Shiwaliks are called ‘Dun’ for ex. DehraDun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun


♦Eastern hills and mountains

The Brahmaputra marks the eastern border of the Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply towards south and form the Eastern hills or Purvanchal.
These hills run through the north eastern states of India & are mostly composed of sandstones for ex. Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Manipuri Hills and Mizo Hills



♦Himalayan Regions from East to West

Punjab Himalayas
This part lies between the Indus and Sutlej –  560 km
From west to east, this is also known as Kashmir Himalaya and Himachal Himalaya; respectively.
Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaola Dhar are the main ranges of this section


♦Kumaon Himalayas
This part lies between Sutlej and Kali rivers – 320 km
 Its western part is called Garhwal Himalaya while the eastern part is known as Kumaon Himalaya
The general elevation is higher as compared to Panjab Himalayas
Nanda Devi, Kamet, Trisul, Badrinath, Kedamath, Gangotri are important peaks.
The sources of sacred rivers like the Ganga and the Yamuna are located in the Kumaon Himalayas
Nainital and Bhimtal are important lakes


♦Nepal Himalayas
This part lies between the Kali and Tista rivers – 800 km
This is the tallest section of the Himalayas and is crowned by several peaks of perpetual snow
Importantpeaks include Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Lhotse I, Makalu, Dhaula Giri and Annapurna
Kathmandu is a famous valley in this region


♦Assam Himalayas
This part lies between the Tista and Dihang rivers – 750 km
Has elevation much lesser than that of the Nepal Himalayas
The southern slopes are very steep but the northern slopes are gentle
Important peaks of this region are Namcha Barwa, Kula Kangri and Chomo Lhari



The Northern Plain


Formed by the interplay of the three major river systems, namely– the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries
Composed of alluvial soil which has been deposited over millions of years, about 2400 km long and about 240 to 320 km broad.
With a rich soil cover combined with adequate water supply and favourable climate it is agriculturally a very productive part of India
Divided into three sections, viz. the Punjab Plain, the Ganga Plain and the Brahmaputra Plain.


Punjab Plains Form the western part of the northern plain & formed by the Indus and its tributaries with major portion of this plains in Pakistan
Ganga Plains Extends between Ghaggar and Tista rivers. The northern states, Haryana, Delhi, UP, Bihar, part of Jharkhand and West Bengal lie in the Ganga plains.
Brahmaputra Plains This plain forms the eastern part of the northern plain and lies in Assam


Based on the relief features; the northern plain can be divided into four regions, viz. bhabar, terai, bhangar and khadar.

Bhabar
After descending from the mountains, the rivers deposit pebbles in a narrow belt.
The width of this belt is about 8 to 16 km; lies parallel to the Shiwaliks.
All the streams disappear in this region


Terai
The terai region lies towards south of the bhabar belt.
In this region, the streams reappear and make a wet, swampy and marshy region


Bhangar
Bhangar is the largest part of the northern plain and is composed of the oldest alluvial soil.
They lie above the flood plains & resemble terraces.
The soil of this region is locally known as kankar and is composed of calcareous deposits


Khadar
The floodplains formed by younger alluvium are called khadar.
The soil in this region is renewed every year and is thus highly fertile.



The Peninsular Plateau

The peninsular plateau is triangular in shape & surrounded by hills, composed of the oldest rocks as it was formed from the drifted part of the Gondwana land
Broad & shallow valleys and rounded hills are the characteristic features of this plateau.
The plateau can be broadly divided into two regions, viz. the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.




♦The Central Highlands

The Central Highlands lies to the north of the Narmada River & covers the major portion of the Malwa plateau.
The rivers in this region flow from southwest to northeast; which indicates the slope of this region.
It is wider in the west and narrower in the east.
Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand mark the eastward extension of this plateau.
The plateau further extends eastwards into the Chhotanagpur plateau


♦The Deccan Plateau

Largest plateau in India, making up most of the southern part of the country, lies to the south of the Naramada River & shaped as downward-pointing triangle.
It is located between two mountain ranges, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
Each rises from its respective nearby coastal plain almost meet at the southern tip of India.
The average elevation of Western Ghats is 900 – 1600 metres; compared to 600 metres in case of Eastern Ghats.
It is separated from the Gangetic plain to the north by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges, which form its northern boundary
Home of thick dark soil (called regur), suitable for cotton cultivation


The Indian Desert


The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.
This region gets scanty rainfall which is less than 150 mm in a year, Hence they climate is arid and vegetation is scanty.
Luni is the only prominent river but some streams appear during rainy season.


The Coastal Plains

The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips which run along the Arabian Sea on the west and along the Bay of Bengal on the east.

♦Western Coastal Plains
The Western Coastal Plainsis a thin strip of coastal plain 50 kilometres in width,  much less than its eastern counterpart, between the west coast of India and the Western Ghats hills, which starts near the south of river Tapi
The plains begin at Gujarat in the north and end at Kerala in the south including the states of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka
The Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat lie on the northern part

Western coastal plane is mainly divided into following sections

Kathiawar Coast → Kutch to Daman (Tapti, Narmada, Sabarmati & Mahi river deposit huge load of sediments in the Gulf of Cambay & form estuaries)
Konkan Coast →  Between Daman & Goa
Kannada Coast →  Between Goa to Cannanore
Kanyakumari Coast →  Between Cannanore to Cape Camorin
Malabar coast à Kannada Coast + Kanyakumari Coast



♦Eastern Coastal Plains

Refer to a wide stretch of landmass of India, lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
These plains are wider and level as compared to the western coastal plains.
It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north.
Eastern coastal plane is mainly divided into following sections

Utkal coast →  Deltaic plains of Ganga to Mahanadi delta (Famous Chilka lake is located in this plain)

Andhra Coast →  Utkal plains to Pulicat lake (Contains deltas of Godavari & Krishna Rivers, & famous Kolleru lake)

Northern Circars → Utkal Coast + Andhra Coast (Between Mahanadi & Krishna)
Coromandal Coast → Between Krishna & Kanyakumari (Consist of Kaveri Delta)


Islands

Total 247 islands in India → 204 islands in Bay of Bengal and 43 in the Arabian Sea
Few coral islands in the Gulf of Mannar also
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal consist of hard volcanic rocks
The middle Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the largest islands of India
Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea are formed by corals
The southern – most point of India is in Nicobar Island, known as Indira Point
Formerly Indira point was called Pygmalion Point, it is submerged now, after 2004 Tsunami

Short Notes Vedic Period and the Aryans

• The Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia(Many historians have given various theories regarding their original place). The Central Asian theory is given by Max Muller.

• Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass(Hindukush mountain) around 1500 BC.



Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period(1500- 1000 BC)


Political Organization
• Monarchial form. Tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan.
• Family was the basic unit of society. The family was patriarchal in nature.


Economy
• Aryans followed a mixed economy i.e pastoral and agricultural in which cattle played a predominant part.
• Standard unit of exchange was Cow. At the same time coins were also there.


Religion
• The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings.
• The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord(breaker of forts-Purandar).



Later Vedic Period(1000- 600 BC) (Painted Gray Ware Phase)


Political Organization
• Tiny tribal settlements were placed by strong kingdoms.


Social
• The four fold division of society became clear, initially based on occupation, which later became hereditary: Brahmins(priests), Kshatriyas(warriors), Vaishyas(agriculturists, cattle- rearers, traders), Shudras(servers of the upper three).
• The institution of the gotra appeared for the first time in this age.



The Vedic Literature


The Vedas
The word Veda comes from the root "vidi" signifying knowledge. They are four in all - Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Athrava Veda.


(1) Rig Veda
• Oldest religious text in the world.
• Contains 1,028 hymns and is divided into 10 mandalas.


(2) Sama Veda
• Derived from the root Saman i.e "melody". It is a collection of melodies.


(3) Yajur Veda
• Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices.


(4) Atharva Veda
• Mostly dealing with magic( along with personal problems of people).


(5) The Upanishads
• Called Vedanata
• They are the main source of Indian Philosophy, 108 in numbers.


(6) The Brahmins
• They explain the meaning of sacrifices and also the methods of performing them.
• Shatpath Brahmin on Yajur Veda is the largest among brahmins.


(7) The Aranyakas
• These Granths were studied in the forest.
• These are the books of instructions.



Epics


(1) Mahabharata
• It was written in sanskrit by Ved Vyas
• It describes about a war between Kauravas and Pandavas of 950 BC in Kurukshetra.
• Translation of "Mahabharat" in persian is called Rajm nama done by Badauni.


(2) Ramayana
• It was written by Valmiki in sanskrit.
• It has 24000 shloks, also known as Aadi-kavya.
• Its persian translation is done by Badauni and Tamil translation by Kamban.
• Ramcharitmanas is written by Tulsidas.


(3) Puranas
• Puranas are 18 in number.
• It was written during Gupta Age in AD 4th Century.
• Matasya Purana is the oldest Purana.


(4) Religion
• Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati(the creator) became supreme. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.

Revolt of India 1857

The Great Revolt of 1857 (also Indian rebellion of 1857, the Great uprising of 1857, the Great rebellion, Indian Sepoy mutiny) is regarded as India’s First War of Independence against the British rule.

It was the most remarkable single event in the history of India after the establishment of British rule. It was the result of the century-old British rule in India. In comparison to the previous uprisings of the Indians, the Great Revolt of 1857 was of a greater dimension and it assumed almost an all-India character with participation of people from different sections of the society. This Revolt was initiated by the sepoys of the company. So it has been commonly termed as `Sepoy Mutiny‘. But it was not simply a revolt of the sepoys.

Historians have realized that it was a great revolt and it would be unfair to call it just a Sepoy Mutiny. Our historians now call it by various names – ‘Great Rebellion’, ‘First War of Indian Independence’, etc.



The Revolt

On 29 March 1857, the Indian sepoys of Barrackpore revolted under Habildar Mangal Pande’s leadership. On 10 May, the Meerut sepoys of the East India Company revolted. The revolt quickly spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Aligar, Lucknow, Jhansi, Allahabad, Oudh and other places of north India.
The revolt that was started by the dissatisfied sepoys soon became a general rising against the British government. It soon became a great challenge to the mighty British power in India. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh of Bihar, Nana Sahib, the Begum of Oudh and Ahmadulla of Faizabad were some of the important leaders of this revolt.

Entire north India from Bihar to the Punjab was in arms against the British. The city of Delhi was captured by the rebels after terrible fighting. Gwalior also was snatched from British hands. The rebels had declared Bahadur shah the emperor of Hindustan.



Causes

The causes of the Great Revolt of 1857 and Sepoy Mutiny may be studied in the following heads:


Political cause:

Major political cause for the outbreak of the Revolt was the policy of annexation followed by Dalhousie. On application of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ or on the ground of mis-governance he annexed states after states deploring their rulers. Satara, Jhansi, Sambalpur, Nagpur, etc. fill victim in his aggressive policy. All these states came under British rule. In 1856, he captured Oudh on the plea of misrule. He looked the palaces of Nagpur and Oudh. Not only the ruling house, but also the employees and other dependent families were deprived of their livings for the policy of Dalhousie. His maltreatment towards the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II hurt the sentiment of the Muslim community. Discontinuation of the pension of the Peshwa Nana Sahib shocked the Marathas. This discontent of royal families, army men and common people jointly exposed in the Great Revolt of 1857.



Economic cause:

The Great Revolt of 1857 was also an outburst of grievances due to the economic exploitation of the company. India’s traditional economy collapsed as a result of the British ‘investment’ policies and revenue administration. The company’s trade policy destroyed Indian handicrafts. Huge numbers of Indians were thrown out of employment. The British, opened a new avenue of exploitation on the peasants By introducing permanent settlement. Exploitation of the Zamindars gave rise 10 landless laborers who became restless by and by. Thus out of discontent the artisans and peasantry joined hands with the sepoys in the mutiny.



Military cause:

The sepoys of the company regiment had been feeling dissatisfied with the English for various reasons.

1.    Thus was a great disparity in salaries between the Indian and European soldiers.

2.    The Indian sepoys were treated with contempt by their European officers.

3.    The sepoys were sent to distant parts of the empire, but were not paid any extra allowance.

4.    Indian sepoys were refused promotion in service as like their European counterparts. Out   of such discon¬tent the Indian sepoys led to a mutiny.



Social cause:

The English could not establish any social relationship with the Indians. The racial arrogance of the British created a difference between the rulers and the ruled.
Enactment of some Acts greatly offended the sentiment of the people. Some of these acts were taken as deliberate blow at the Hindu religion, custom and right of inheritance.



Direct cause:

At that time, Enfield rifles were introduced in the army. The bullets of these rifles were covered by paper with grease like thing. The Sepoys were to cut the cover by teeth before using it. The Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused to cut the covers. They protested against this and were arrested. That ignited the fire.

Under the leadership of Mangal Pandey the agony of the Sepoys exposed at Barrackpore in Calcutta (March, 1857 A.D.). But the planned revolt started at Meerut (May, 1857 A.D.). Gradually it spread from Punjab in the north to Narmada in south, from Rajputana in the west to Bihar in the east. As the revolt was started by the Indian sepoys in the British army, the revolt became known as Sepoy mutiny. When the sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi there was huge upsurge. They declared old Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the Badshah of India. He was accepted as the symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity. With the outbreak of mutiny among Sepoys common men joined the revolt. Farmers and artisans put further force behind the mutiny. The second reason for this mass revolt was the unity among the Hindus and Muslims. On observing this historians thought that, up to this period there was no communal feelings among the masses.




End of the Revolt

The British government came out with all the powers to suppress the revolt. The sepoys fought the battle with their limited strength for four months. Then, the sepoys had to retreat. On 25th September British troops regained Delhi. Bahadur Shah was arrested. Nana Saheb lost the battle of Kanpur. His commander Tantia Topi continued the fight up to April, 1859 A.D. and surrendered to the British force. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi lost her life in the battle¬ground. Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan of Bihar, Bahadur Khan, Moulavi Ahmed of Faizabad lost their lives one after the other. By the end of 1859 A.D. the British power was reestablished in troubled areas.




Reason of failure of the revolt

There were several reasons behind the failure of this revolt.

1.    There was no central organization of the sepoys. There was no unified action also. Bahadur Shah, Nana Saheb, Lakshmi Bai, no one had acceptance as a real leader. They had different goals and times again they had contradictions.


2.    The British had a huge number of forces. New groups of soldiers were sent to India after the end of Crimean war. Fresh army men came from Singapore. As a result of these, in the middle of the revolt the strength of the British force was doubled. The chance of a win became remote.


3.     The sepoys had no improved arms with them. On the other hand, the British force had huge and improved armory. They could not match improved guns and ri¬fles with their old model musket, spears and sword. So the defeat was almost certain.


4.    Further the leaders of this revolt could not get the support of several native states like Holker, Scindia and Rajput sardars and kings. They supported the British. Educated middle-class people also were behind the British power.




Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857

There are differences of opinions amongst historians about the character of this great revolt. Some historians are of opinion that the revolt in the North-Western province was a lawless revolt by a group of sepoys.

On the other hand, some historians believe that it was more than just a sepoy mutiny as it had a large mass base. Though in the beginning it was like sepoy mutiny, but later on it turned out to be a real mass upsurge.

Karl Marx in his several essays described this revolt as nationalist fight for independence. Marxist writers looked at this event as uprising of peasants against feudal system of exploitation. V.D. Savarkar, the great revolutionary, described this revolt as the first struggle for independence. M.N. Roy said that it was the reaction of the feudal against capitalism.
On the centenary of the great revolt Dr. Ramesh Chandra Majumder wrote and published a book entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ and ‘Revolt of Eighteen Fifty Seven’. Dr. Majumder thought that this was nothing but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said that in some places few non-military persons came out in support of the sepoys but they were local landlords, talukdars and feudal leaders. In his opinion it was nothing better than feudalistic reaction of the revolt.

But many historians are of opinion that the Great movement of 1857 A.D. cannot be termed as narrow, isolated and reactionary. The sepoys established a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity by electing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. In the Ajamgarh declaration a call was given to people of all classes of mass to unite against the British rule. It may be righty that they had no idea about national government, but nationalism was there. So it can be called a national movement.





Importance and Outcome of the Great Revolt of 1857

It can be said that the great revolt of 1857 A.D. was a failure, but was not fruitless.

1. United Effort: From this revolt, we can have a picture of India’s struggle for keeping the rights. There were several revolts before this, but there was no feeling of Indian-ness in those revolts. The revolt of 1857 A.D. was a collected effort of different sections of people.


2. Awakening of Peasants class: The peasants joined this revolt which was out and out against the British. This was unique.


3. Development of National Feeling: Dr. K. M Panikkar wrote that though the sepoys had limitations and weaknesses, but their efforts to make India free from British rule was patriotic work and a progressive step. If we do not consider any historical event on the basis of its success then the revolt of 1857 A.D. was never a tragedy. Even inspite of failure that served a great purpose, it was a source of inspiration in India’s freedom struggle.


4. End of Company Rule: The political result of this great revolt was the end of company’s rule in India. By a new act introduced in the British Parliament British government took the charge to rule India. From then onward a Viceroy as a representative of British King ruled India.


5. Queen’s proclamation: The Queen’s Proclamation showered many promises in 1858 A.D. Government service was promised irrespective of cast, religion and on the basis of merit only. Ill framed “doctrine of lapse” of Lord Dalhousie was cancelled. New recruitment policy of the army men was announced to see that they could not organize any revolt. In the important positions of the government no native people (Indian) was given any chance.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty

♦♦Origin

The Rashtrakutas called themselves descendants of one named Satyaki. But there is difference of opinion about their origin among the historians. According to some they were originally of Dravidian peasant extraction. From some of the inscriptions of the Chalukya kings it is known that the Rashtrakutas were feudatories of the Chalukyas. Perhaps their original home was Karnataka and their mother tongue was Kanarese.



♦♦Founder

The founder of the Rashtrakuta power was Dantivarman or Dantidurga. The Rashtrakuta King Dantivarman or Dantidurga was contemporary of Chalukya King Pulakesin II.
Dantidurga occupied all territories between the Godavari and Vima. Dantidurga is said to have conquered Kalinga, Kosala, Kanchi, Srisril, Malava, Lata etc. He annexed Maharashtra to his kingdom by defeating Chalukya King Kirtivarma.



♦Krishna I

Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I. He conquered the territories that were still under the Chalukyas and thereby competed conquest of the Chalukya territories. He also occupied Konkan. It is not known for certain the name of the country over which Rahappa used to rule. Vishnuvardhana of Vengi and the Ganga king of Mysore were defeated at the hands of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna I.

The Kailash Temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna I. He was a great patron of art and architecture.




♦Govinda II

Krishnaraja’s eventful career came to an end within a very short time and he was succeeded by his son Govindaraj who ruled for some time as Govinda II. His worthlessness as a ruler and his lack of interest in administration led to his deposition by his brother Dhruva who ascended the throne himself.



♦Dhruva

Dhruva was by far the best ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He ruled for a short span of time but within this short time he entered into struggle with the Gurjara-Pratihara King Vatsyaraja and defeated him signally. He also like wise defeated the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pala King Dharmapala of Bengal.



♦Govinda III

Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda III his son and with almost equal vigor as of his father. He succeeded in keeping the Gurjara power sufficiently under control. He defeated the great Gurjara King Nagabhatta II. It is said that the Pala King Dharmapala and his protégé Charayudh sought the help of Govinda III. Govinda III made the Rashtrakutas dynasty one of the most powerful dynasties of contemporary India. His kingdom spread up to the Vindhyas and Malava in the north and the river Tungabhadra to the south.



Amoghavarsha I

The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Amoghavarsha I. As a warrior he was, however, no match with his father Govinda III, but he succeeded in defeating the East-Chalukya kings.

Amoghavarsha I set up a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State) and during his reign Broach became the best port of his kingdom.

Amoghavarsha I was a great patron of education and literature. From the evidence of the Jaina works it is known that Amoghavarsha was converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk. Amoghavarsha spent the accumulated wealth of his predecessors to beautify his kingdom.

Suleman, an Arab merchant, in his account called Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the world, the other three being the Caliph of Bagdad, the king of Constantinople and the emperor of China.



Krishna II

Amoghavarsha ruled for 63 years and he was succeeded by his son Krishna II who in his turn was succeeded by Indra III.



Indra III

Indra III was a powerful king. He defeated and deposed Mahipala.

The Rashtrakuta Kings Amoghavarsha II, Govinda IV and Amoghavarsha III were weak kings.



Krishna III

The last powerful and efficient king of the Rashtrakutas was Krishna III. He had a prolonged struggle with Mahipala, the Gurjara king. He also succeeded in conquering Tanjore and Kanchi. In the middle of the tenth century for a time he succeeded in defeating the Tamil kings of Chola kingdom. But towards the end of the same century the Rashtrakuta King Kaka was defeated and deposed by Taila or Tailapa, the Chalukya king of Kalyani. With Kaka’s defeat the Rashtrakuta power came to an end.





♦♦History of Rashtrakuta Dynasty, Art and Architecture

The Rashtrakutas rose to power between 6th and 10th centuries among the dynasties of south India. According to popular belief they were of Kannada origin. Their capital was Malkhed near Sholapur. The geographical position of Rashtrakutas led to their being involved in alliances as well as wars with both their northern and southern neighbouring kingdoms. It has been recorded that the earlier rulers of Rashtrakuta dynasty were Hindus but later rulers were Jains


♦♦Society and Economy of Rashtrakutas:

Vaishnavism and shaivism both were prominent religions in the Rashtrakuta reign. While one third of the population was following Jainism. There were many properous Buddhist settlements in Kanheri, Sholapur and Dharwar.

The centres of learning also flourished at places in under Rashtrakutas. A college at Salatogi in Bijapur district was run by income from endowments made by rich people  and  villagers on occasion of functions and festivals.

The trade and commerce between Deccan and Arabs. The Rashtrakutas maintained good relations with Arab traders.



♦♦Art and Culture during  Rashtrakutas :

They patronized Sanskrit literature. Under the Rashtrakutas, Trivikrama wrote ‘Nalachampu’, Halayudha wrote ‘Kavirahasya’ under the reign of Krishna II.

Amoghavarsha patronized Jaina scholars. His teacher Jinasena wrote ‘Parsharvabhudaya’ containing verses about Parsharvanath. Under his patronage, the kannada literature began to develop. Infact, Amoghavarsha’s Kavirajamarga is the forst poetic work in Kannada.

Under the Rashtrakutas, Gunabhadra wrote ‘Adipurana’, based on life of Jain saints. Sakatayana wrote grammar ‘Amogavritti’. Viracharya, the mathematician wrote ‘Ganitsaram’.

Two great poets of Kannada language during the Rashtrakuta regime were Pampa and Pnna. Pampa wrote ‘Vikramasenavijaya’. Ponna wrote ‘Santipurana’.



♦♦Architecture under Rashtrakuta dynasty:

The Rashtrakuta architecture is exemplified by Ellora and Elephanta.

The cave architecture reached its excellence in the Kailashnath temple at Ellora.

It was built under Krishna I. This temple is carved out a massive block of rock that is 200 feet long and hundred feet width and height. It has four parts in all- the main shrine, entrance gateway, intermediate shrine for Nandi and a mandapa surrounding the courtyard. The height od the Kailash Temple at Ellora is 25 feet, endowed with elephant and lion figures. The three-tiered Shikhara resembles Shikara of Mammalapuram Rathas. The most significant part of the temple is its scultures which make this Kailash Temple an architectural marvel. It has sculpture of Durga slaying buffalo demon. Another sculpture has Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailash. There are scenes from Ramayan carved out on the walls of the temple. This temple is considered a piece of Dravidian style of Architecture.



♦♦ The Elephanta Caves of Rashtrakutas:

Elephanta caves situated at an island near Mumbai, were originally known as Sripuri. The Portuguese later named it  so due to the large Elephant sculture it had. There is a close similarity between the Ellora temple and Elephanta caves depicting continuity of craftsmen. The entrance of the elephanta caves has huge figures of dwra-palakas at the entrance. The wall surrounding the prakara around the Sanctum has sculptures of – Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareeshvara, Somaskanda and Trimurthi(six metre in height, representing the three aspects of Shiva- creator, preserver, destroyer).


♦♦Conclusion :

The Rashtrakuta kings maintained a friendly relation with the Arabs of Sind. When the Gurjara-Pratihara was engaged in fierce struggle against the Arabs, the Rashtrakutas were profiting by carrying on trade with the Arabs. By way of this business relation a large number of Arab merchants came to the Rashtrakuta kingdom. Suleiman was the Arab merchant and was the most celebrated of them.

Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilisation or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread. Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. Children's toys were found in the cities, with few weapons of war, suggesting peace and prosperity. Their trade seals, decorated with animals and mythical beings, indicate they conducted thriving trade with lands as far away as Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.

The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. Of these, the earlier is often called the Early Harappan culture, while the later one may be referred to as the Late Harappan, both of which existed in the same area as the Mature Harappan Civilisation. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated. A total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found by 2008, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 406 sites are in Pakistan and 616 sites in India; of these 96 have been excavated. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala and Rakhigarhi. The Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars.The Indus Valley Civilisation has also been called by some the "Sarasvati culture", the "Sarasvati Civilisation", the "Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation" or the "Sindhu-Saraswati Civilisation", as the Ghaggar-Hakra river is identified by some with the mythological Sarasvati river, suggesting that the Indus Valley Civilisation was the Vedic civilisation as perceived by traditional Hindu beliefs.





Basic Facts about Indus Valley Civilization:



Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization that thrived along the course of Indus river in North-Western part of Indian subcontinent
It is also referred to as Harappan Civilization owing to the fact that this civilization was first discovered in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the Punjab province Punjab of current day Pakistan.
Time Duration of Indus Valley Civilization: As revealed by Radio-Carbon this civilization thrived during 2500-1750 B.C.


Geographical Extent of Indus Valley Civilization:

The Indus Valley Civilization covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the fringes of Western Uttar Pradesh
It extended from Jammu in the North to mouth of River Narmada in the South and from the Makran Coast of Baluchistan in the West to Meerut in the East
It covered an area of 1299600 sq. Metre. This indicates that Indus Valley Civilization was the most extensive among all other ancient civilizations


Important Cities and Sites of Indus Valley Civilization:

So far archaeologists have come across more than 1000 sites belonging to this civilization
Out of these, only 6 can be regarded as cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan and Banwali
Largest site of Indus Civilization is Mohenjo-daro
Necessary Details related to important Indus Valley Civilization Sites have been provided in following table:


Click Here





Important Features of Indus Valley Civilization:

Harappan Civilization Town Planning

Town planning was the hallmark of Harappan culture
Harappan towns and cities were built as per grid pattern wherein roads and by lanes bisected each other at right angles.
Drainage system in Indus Civilization towns was very impressive.
Burnt bricks were widely used for construction purpose.
Major towns had two parts: (i) A fortified settlement/citadel on the upper side possibly occupied by elite class people and (ii) the lower town, which had houses occupied by common people.
Agriculture

The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November when the flood water receded, and reaped the harvest in April before the advent of next flood
They produced two types of wheat and barley
They also produced rai, peas, sesamum and mustard
Evidence of use of Rice has been found only from Lothal
Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. As cotton was first produced in this area Greeks called it ‘sindon’ which is derived from Sindh


Domestication of Animals

Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep and pigs were domesticated. However, humped bulls were favoured.
Dogs were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated
Asses and camels were used as beasts of burden
Horses were not in regular use
Harappan people were also familiar with Elephants and Rhinoceros


Trade and Commerce

Trade and commerce was flourishing in Harappan age. Trade and Commercial activities were carried on through sea as well as land routes
Carts, chariots and animals were means of transports as far as land trade is concerned. For sea trade, big boats were used.
Harappan people had trade relations within India, as well as with countries outside India.
The Mesopotamian texts of the same period refer to trade relations with ‘Meluha’ which was the ancient name given to Indus region.
With no clear evidence of currency/money being used the exchange must have been through barter system


Art of Indus Valley Civilization:

The Harappan Civilization belongs to the Bronze Age. Harappan people used many tools and implements of stone, but they were very well acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze, which was made by mixing tin and copper.
Bronze smiths manufactured not only images and utensils but also various tools and weapons such as axes, saws, knifes and spears.
Brick-laying was an important craft at that time.
The Harappan people had the knowledge of boat-making, seal-making and terracotta manufacturing.
Harappans were experts in bead making.
Jewellery of gold, silver and precious stones was also made.
The potter’s wheel was in full use and the Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was made glossy and shining.


Seals of Indus Valley Civilization:

Most commonly made of ‘steatite’ (soft stone), Seals were the greatest artistic creation of Harappan people.
The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short inscription.
‘Unicorn’ is the animal most commonly represented on the seals.




Indus Valley Civilization Religion:

The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-shiva), represented in the seals as sitting in yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction and two deer appear at his feet.
Chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms.
There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship i.e. lingam worship. Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus have been discovered.
Worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.
Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (peepal etc.) and animals (unicorn etc.)
Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.


Harappan Script:

Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and a variety of human forms.
The script was boustrophedon, written from right to left in one line and then from left to right in the next line.
The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600.
The language of Harappan people is unknown as its script has not been deciphered till date.


Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:

Scholars have put forward number of theories to explain the decline and the final collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of these theories highlight the natural causes whereas others mention human causes for the decline.